How the Web Was Won - An Oral History of the Internet - Part 2
By Michael Lang on Jun 10, 2008 in BRAIN FOOD
II: The Creation
In 1969, arpa gave the job of building “interface message processors” (I.M.P.’s), otherwise known as “nodes” or “packet switches”—the crucial hardware for sending and receiving bursts of data—to Bolt, Beranek & Newman. In a congratulatory telegram to the company, Senator Edward M. Kennedy referred to I.M.P.’s as “interfaith” message processors.
Bob Kahn: They said, We want a network. This would be like a bid for a rocket to the moon—you know, handle a thousand pounds of payload, launch from a vertical liftoff in
Larry Roberts: There were two competing bids that were particularly close, BBN and Raytheon. And I chose between them based on the team structure and the people. I just felt that the BBN team was less structured. There wouldn’t be as many middle managers and so on.
Bob Kahn: Larry Roberts was an engineer. In fact, Larry probably could have built the Arpanet himself, would be my guess, except there would have been nobody at arpa to run the program who was capable. When Larry contracted with us at BBN to do it, you know, in some sense he kept his fingers in the pie right through that whole period.
On an eight-month deadline, the BBN team delivered their prototype I.M.P. to U.C.L.A. on August 30, 1969.
Leonard Kleinrock: September 2, 1969, is when the first I.M.P. was connected to the first host, and that happened at U.C.L.A. We didn’t even have a camera or a tape recorder or a written record of that event. I mean, who noticed? Nobody did. Nineteen sixty-nine was quite a year. Man on the moon.
So the switch arrives. Nobody notices. However, a month later, Stanford Research Institute gets their I.M.P., and they connect their host to their switch. Think of a square box, our computer, connected to a circle, which is the I.M.P., 5, 10 feet away. There’s another I.M.P. 400 miles north of us in
So on October 29, 1969, at 10:30 in the evening, you will find in a log, a notebook log that I have in my office at U.C.L.A., an entry which says, “Talked to SRI host to host.” If you want to be, shall I say, poetic about it, the September event was when the infant Internet took its first breath.
Bob Kahn: More than a year and a half later there were really no fully operational sites. And the reason was that, in order to get on, you had to implement interfaces, you had to build protocols, you had to connect it to your operating systems, you had to connect it to your applications. It was a job for wizards. My conclusion was that we needed to do something to stimulate people. So I talked to arpa about doing a demonstration, and they made arrangements with the organizers of the very first International Conference on Computer Communication. It was very exciting. People would come in to see what was going on. If you had to pick an analogy, I’d almost liken it to
Vint Cerf, who worked with Leonard Kleinrock at U.C.L.A., is the co-designer (with Bob Kahn) of the TCP and IP protocols that provide the basic linking structure of the Internet. He is now an executive at Google, where his title is “chief Internet evangelist.”
Vint Cerf: One of the features of this Arpanet is that the machines that were connected to it were time-shared. The idea of leaving files for each other was pretty common in the time-sharing world. A guy named Ray Tomlinson, at Bolt, Beranek & Newman, figured out a way to cause a file to be transferred from one machine through the Net to another machine and left in a particular location for someone to pick up. He said, I need some symbol that separates the name of the recipient from the machine that the guy’s files are on. And so he looked around for what symbols on the keyboard were not already in use, and found the “@” sign. It was a tremendous invention.
Robert Metcalfe, who worked on the Arpanet at M.I.T., went on to invent Ethernet and to found 3Com. He is also the progenitor of Metcalfe’s Law: as the number of users on a network grows, the value of that network increases exponentially. Metcalfe was given the job of demonstrating the Arpanet system at its coming-out party, at the I.C.C.C. meeting at the Washington Hilton, in 1972.
Bob Metcalfe: Imagine a bearded grad student being handed a dozen AT&T executives, all in pin-striped suits and quite a bit older and cooler. And I’m giving them a tour. And when I say a tour, they’re standing behind me while I’m typing on one of these terminals. I’m traveling around the Arpanet showing them: Ooh, look. You can do this. And I’m in U.C.L.A. in
And I turned around to look at these 10, 12 AT&T suits, and they were all laughing. And it was in that moment that AT&T became my bête noire, because I realized in that moment that these sons of bitches were rooting against me.
To this day, I still cringe at the mention of AT&T. That’s why my cell phone is a T-Mobile. The rest of my family uses AT&T, but I refuse.
As networking grew, so did the number of distinct networks. Across the Atlantic, French computer scientist Louis Pouzin was building his own Arpanet, called
Larry Roberts: After we built the Arpanet, lots of people built networks. Everybody was competing. Everyone had their own thing that they wanted to do. So it became very important that the world have one protocol, so they could all talk to each other. And Bob Kahn really pushed that process. And Vint. And it wasn’t licensed. They proved to the world that making something free as a driver would make a huge difference in making it a standard.
Vint Cerf: The Arpanet demonstrated the effectiveness of packet switching. And it demonstrated that it was possible to get heterogeneous computers to talk to each other through a single common packet-switched net. What Bob Kahn and I did was to demonstrate that with a different set of protocols you could get an infinite number of—well, infinite is not true, but an arbitrarily large number of—different heterogeneous packet-switched nets to interconnect with each other as if it was all one big giant network. TCP is the thing that makes the Internet the Internet.
We absolutely knew what could happen if our work was successful. We knew about the mobile possibilities. We knew about satellite. We had some idea of how powerful this was. What we didn’t know was the economics of it.
In the decade after TCP was introduced, the Internet was embraced by university researchers and other early adopters. The roots of Web culture can be traced to the usenetand bulletin boards that evolved in this era. In 1977, Apple Computer, Inc., founded by engineers and hobbyists Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak, introduced the Apple II, one of the first personal computers (priced at $1,200). In 1981, IBM launched a rival model, IBM PC.
Bob Metcalfe: In the early days there were these big computers. They cost millions of dollars and they occupied entire rooms. And there was usually one or two per city. Then personal computers came along, Apple in the late 70s. But mostly, the big event was IBM in August of 1981. That was a huge event. Because those P.C.’s became business tools. It went from the university into business. And it wasn’t a consumer phenomenon for a long time after that.
In 1985, a company called Control Video hired Steve Case, a product manager at Pizza Hut, to help market its fledgling electronic-gaming service. In a few years Case became its chief executive and pushed the company further into interactivity and communications. The company was ultimately re-christened
Steve Case: We always believed that people talking to each other was the killer app. And so whether it was instant messaging or chat rooms, which we launched in 1985, or message boards, it was always the community that was front and center. Everything else—commerce and entertainment and financial services—was secondary. We thought community trumped content.
The biggest breakthrough that drove the success of the medium was getting P.C. manufacturers to bundle modems into their P.C.’s. We tried for several years with all of them, but finally convinced IBM to do that in 1989. Up until then modems were viewed as a peripheral.
The arrival of e-mail was followed quickly by the arrival of “junk” e-mail, or spam. Gary Thuerk, a marketer for Digital Equipment Corporation, sent the first spam into the Arpanet in 1978—it was an open invitation to two product demonstrations in
Dan Webb: I didn’t really know what e-mail was, to be honest with you. All of a sudden these top-ranking government officials were communicating back and forth with each other with amazing candor just as if they were in a conversation. And it opened my eyes to what, in effect, was a stunning change in the way evidence gets presented. What we’re always doing is we have witnesses, and we’re trying to reconstruct past historical events through the imperfection of recollection. All of a sudden you have these things called e-mails, where there’s a verbatim record of what was actually communicated at a point in time.
Steve Case: I remember when our growth suddenly accelerated. There were so many people who were trying to get into AOL that we weren’t able to handle the demand. And for one particular period, I think for 23 hours, the whole system was down. In just a short few years we went from a business nobody knew anything about or cared about to suddenly being such a part of everyday life that the system was down for a day and it was a major national story. It was like the water system was down or the electricity system was down.
When the Internet started to become a truly globalized system, the potential threats to it became more insidious—interconnectivity is both a strength and a weakness. The first significant attack came on November 2, 1988, in the form of the so-called Morris Worm, created by a Cornell graduate student named Robert Tappan Morris. Keith Bostic, a computer programmer then at Berkeley, was one of those who tracked Morris down.
Keith Bostic: Basically, Robert Morris finds a couple of security problems in Unix systems and figures he can write a worm. He’s a student. He’s not being malicious here. Fires that sucker off. And unfortunately he makes a pretty boneheaded programming error. Instead of doing what he intended, which was kind of, you know, to wander around the Net and have a good time, it just pretty much shut down all the network systems.
Morris became the first person indicted under the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act. He was eventually fined more than $10,000 and sentenced to three years’ probation and 400 hours of community service. Mark Rasch, then the top computer-crime lawyer at the Justice Department, was the prosecuting attorney in
Mark Rasch: From a law-enforcement perspective our concern is to figure out (a) is this deliberate activity?, (b) is it criminal?, and if so, who’s responsible? I wish I could say that it was heavy detective work and things like that. By the time he told us, we already knew. If you recall, his father was the chief scientist for the
It didn’t destroy any information. It didn’t even corrupt any information. All it did was make copies of itself. On the other hand, while it was running it basically made 10 percent of the computers on the Internet unusable for a period of anywhere between a few hours to a few days. Military installations took themselves off the grid.
It was a watershed event. If somebody who wasn’t even trying to do something bad could do this, imagine what someone evil can do.
Morris himself is now a professor of computer science at M.I.T.
Robert Morris: I’d rather not talk about it—sorry.
Next: III: The Web
Previously: I: The Conception
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